(3S,6E)-nerolidol-mediated rendezvous of Cyclocephala paraguayensis beetles in bottle gourd flowers.

Cyclocephalini beetles of the genus Cyclocephala (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae: Dynastinae) use flowers of some plants as food, shelter, and mating sites. However, little is known about floral scent chemistry involved in this interaction. Here we show that a sesquiterpene alcohol mediates attraction of Cyclocephala paraguayensis Arrow, on bottle gourd flowers, Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae). Both males and females started to aggregate on the flowers at twilight; after that, mating began and remained for the entire night. GC-FID/EAD analysis of the L. siceraria floral scent collected in the field revealed that only the major constituent of the airborne volatiles elicited electroantennographic responses on male and female antennae of C. paraguayensis. This compound was identified as (3S,6E)-nerolidol, which was tested in two field trapping trials in Brazil. In the first bioassay, traps baited with nerolidol (mix of isomers) captured significantly more adult C. paraguayensis than control traps. In the second field trial, catches in traps baited with a mixture of isomers or enantiopure nerolidol were significantly higher than captures in control traps, but the treatments did not differ significantly. Analysis from the gut content of adult C. paraguayensis showed the presence of pollen, suggesting that they also use bottle gourd flowers for their nourishment. Taken together, these results suggest that (3S,6E)-nerolidol plays an essential role in the reproductive behavior of C. paraguayensis by eliciting aggregation, mating, and feeding.

Predatory Earwigs are Attracted by Herbivore-Induced Plant Volatiles Linked with Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria.

Plant-associated microbes may induce plant defenses against herbivores. Plants, in turn, can attract natural enemies, such as predators, using herbivore-induced plant volatiles. Intricate communication occurs between microorganisms, plants, and insects. Given that many aspects related to mechanisms involved in this symbiotic system remain unknown, we evaluated how beneficial soil-borne microorganisms can affect the interactions between plants, herbivores, and natural enemies. For this study, we established a multitrophic system composed of the predatory earwig Doru luteipes (Dermaptera: Forficulidae), arugula (Eruca sativa, Brassicaceae) as the host plant, Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) larvae as a specialist herbivore, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae as a generalist herbivore, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens as the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), in a series of nocturnal olfactometry experiments. By assessing earwig preference towards herbivore-induced and PGPR-inoculated plants in different combinations, we showed that the interaction between rhizobacteria, plants, and herbivores can affect the predatory earwig's behavior. Furthermore, we observed a synergistic effect in which earwigs were attracted by plants that presented as PGPR inoculated and herbivore damaged, for both specialist and generalist herbivores. Our findings help fill the important knowledge gap regarding multitrophic interactions and should provide useful guidelines for their application to agricultural fields.

Hygienic behaviour in Brazilian stingless bees.

Social insects have many defence mechanisms against pests and pathogens. One of these is hygienic behaviour, which has been studied in detail in the honey bee, Apis mellifera Hygienic honey bee workers remove dead and diseased larvae and pupae from sealed brood cells, thereby reducing disease transfer within the colony. Stingless bees, Meliponini, also rear broods in sealed cells. We investigated hygienic behaviour in three species of Brazilian stingless bees (Melipona scutellaris, Scaptotrigona depilis, Tetragonisca angustula) in response to freeze-killed brood. All three species had high mean levels of freeze-killed brood removal after 48 h ∼99% in M. scutellaris, 80% in S. depilis and 62% in T. angustula (N=8 colonies per species; three trials per colony). These levels are greater than in unselected honey bee populations, ∼46%. In S. depilis there was also considerable intercolony variation, ranging from 27% to 100% removal after 2 days. Interestingly, in the S. depilis colony with the slowest removal of freeze-killed brood, 15% of the adult bees emerging from their cells had shrivelled wings indicating a disease or disorder, which is as yet unidentified. Although the gross symptoms resembled the effects of deformed wing virus in the honey bee, this virus was not detected in the samples. When brood comb from the diseased colony was introduced to the other S. depilis colonies, there was a significant negative correlation between freeze-killed brood removal and the emergence of deformed worker bees (P=0.001), and a positive correlation with the cleaning out of brood cells (P=0.0008). This shows that the more hygienic colonies were detecting and removing unhealthy brood prior to adult emergence. Our results indicate that hygienic behaviour may play an important role in colony health in stingless bees. The low levels of disease normally seen in stingless bees may be because they have effective mechanisms of disease management, not because they lack diseases.

Quality versus quantity: Foraging decisions in the honeybee (Apis mellifera scutellata) feeding on wildflower nectar and fruit juice.

Foraging animals must often decide among resources which vary in quality and quantity. Nectar is a resource that exists along a continuum of quality in terms of sugar concentration and is the primary energy source for bees. Alternative sugar sources exist, including fruit juice, which generally has lower energetic value than nectar. We observed many honeybees (Apis mellifera scutellata) foraging on juice from fallen guava (Psidium guajava) fruit near others foraging on nectar. To investigate whether fruit and nectar offered contrasting benefits of quality and quantity, we compared honeybee foraging performance on P. guajava fruit versus two wildflowers growing within 50 m, Richardia brasiliensis and Tridax procumbens. Bees gained weight significantly faster on fruit, 2.72 mg/min, than on either flower (0.17 and 0.12 mg/min, respectively). However, the crop sugar concentration of fruit foragers was significantly lower than for either flower (12.4% vs. 37.0% and 22.7%, respectively). Fruit foragers also spent the most time handling and the least time flying, suggesting that fruit juice was energetically inexpensive to collect. We interpret honeybee foraging decisions in the context of existing foraging models and consider how nest-patch distance may be a key factor for central place foragers choosing between resources of contrasting quality and quantity. We also discuss how dilute solutions, such as fruit juice, can help maintain colony sugar-water balance. These results show the benefits of feeding on resources with contrasting quality and quantity and that even low-quality resources have value.

Queen signals in a stingless bee: suppression of worker ovary activation and spatial distribution of active compounds.

In most species of social insect the queen signals her presence to her workers via pheromones. Worker responses to queen pheromones include retinue formation around the queen, inhibition of queen cell production and suppression of worker ovary activation. Here we show that the queen signal of the Brazilian stingless bee Friesella schrottkyi is a mixture of cuticular hydrocarbons. Stingless bees are therefore similar to ants, wasps and bumble bees, but differ from honey bees in which the queen's signal mostly comprises volatile compounds originating from the mandibular glands. This shows that cuticular hydrocarbons have independently evolved as the queen's signal across multiple taxa, and that the honey bees are exceptional. We also report the distribution of four active queen-signal compounds by Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging. The results indicate a relationship between the behavior of workers towards the queen and the likely site of secretion of the queen's pheromones.

Pheromone paths attached to the substrate in meliponine bees: helpful but not obligatory for recruitment success.

In contrast to marking of the location of resources or sexual partners using single-spot pheromone sources, pheromone paths attached to the substrate and assisting orientation are rarely found among flying organisms. However, they do exist in meliponine bees (Apidae, Apinae, Meliponini), commonly known as stingless bees, which represent a group of important pollinators in tropical forests. Worker bees of several Neotropical meliponine species, especially in the genus Scaptotrigona Moure 1942, deposit pheromone paths on substrates between highly profitable resources and their nest. In contrast to past results and claims, we find that these pheromone paths are not an indispensable condition for successful recruitment but rather a means to increase the success of recruiters in persuading their nestmates to forage food at a particular location. Our results are relevant to a speciation theory in scent path-laying meliponine bees, such as Scaptotrigona. In addition, the finding that pheromone path-laying bees are able to recruit to food locations even across barriers such as large bodies of water affects tropical pollination ecology and theories on the evolution of resource communication in insect societies with a flying worker caste.

The effects of host, geographic origin, and gender on the thermal requirements of Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Psyllidae).

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) is the vector of the bacteria that causes citrus greening and is considered one of the world's most important citrus diseases. We examined how host, geographic region, and gender affect the thermal requirements of D. citri. The insects were reared in climatic chambers at constant temperatures of 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, and 32 +/- 1 degrees C, 70 +/- 10% RH, and a 14 h photophase. Host plants for D. citri included orange (Citrus sinensis [Rutaceae]) varieties Pêra and Natal, the rootstock, Rungpur lime (C. limonia [Rutaceae]) and the natural host, Orange jessamine (Murraya paniculata [Rutaceae]). To study the influence of geographic origin on thermal requirements, we studied D. citri populations from Piracicaba, SP (warmer region) and Itapetininga, SP (cooler region). The duration and survival of the development stages and the duration of the total development (egg-adult) did not differ significantly on the different hosts, but it did vary with temperature. Nymphs of D. citri created on the different hosts have the same thermal requirements. The thermal requirements for this species collected from the two climate regions were identical; males and females also had the same thermal requirements.

[Population dynamics and vertical distribution of Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) in pastures]. / Flutuação populacional e distribuição vertical de Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) em área de pastagem.

Studies on population dynamics and vertical distribution in the soil of Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker were carried out in a pasture area in Paraúna, State of Goias, Brazil, from November 2004 to October 2005. One meter-deep holes were excavated in the soil, except on the season of lower precipitation, when 2-meter holes were excavated (June, August and September 2005). On each evaluation, the specimens were collected and grouped according to the depth they were found in the soil profile (0-20, 21-40, 41-60, 61-80 and 81-100 cm). Nymphs occurred during the entire length of the study and were more abundant than adults. Adult population augmented with the increase of rainfall. Nymphs and adults were located in the top layer of the soil during the rainy season and were found deeper in the soil during droughts. However, adults were less tolerant to hydric stress and burrowed deeper into the soil at the beginning of the dry season, while nymphs burrowed deeper only at the end of the season. Results of this study are in accordance to other studies on various species of Scaptocoris, in other regions of Brazil.

Flutuação populacional e distribuição vertical de Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) em área de pastagem / Population dynamics and vertical distribution of Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker (Hemiptera: Cydnidae) in pastures

Os estudos de levantamento populacional e distribuição vertical de Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker foram realizados em área de pastagem de Paraúna, GO, entre os meses de novembro de 2004 e outubro de 2005. Em cada avaliação foram realizadas escavações de 1 m de profundidade, coletando os indivíduos e agrupando-os de acordo com a profundidade em que se localizavam no perfil do solo (0-20, 21-40, 41-60, 61-80 e 81-100 cm). Quando os insetos foram encontrados em quantidades baixas até 1 m, as escavações foram realizadas até 2 m de profundidade (junho, agosto e setembro de 2005). As ninfas foram predominantes durante todo o período. O número de adultos foi dependente das chuvas, constatando-se maior incidência com o incremento da precipitação. Ninfas e adultos mantiveram-se nas camadas superficiais do solo no período chuvoso e aprofundaram-se nos períodos de deficiência hídrica. No entanto, os adultos demonstraram menor tolerância ao estresse hídrico e aprofundaram-se logo no início da época seca, enquanto as ninfas o fizeram somente no final desse período. Os resultados obtidos nesse trabalho são semelhantes aos verificados para outras espécies de Scaptocoris, em outras regiões.

Studies on population dynamics and vertical distribution in the soil of Scaptocoris carvalhoi Becker were carried out in a pasture area in Paraúna, State of Goias, Brazil, from November 2004 to October 2005. One meter-deep holes were excavated in the soil, except on the season of lower precipitation, when 2-meter holes were excavated (June, August and September 2005). On each evaluation, the specimens were collected and grouped according to the depth they were found in the soil profile (0-20, 21-40, 41-60, 61-80 and 81-100 cm). Nymphs occurred during the entire length of the study and were more abundant than adults. Adult population augmented with the increase of rainfall. Nymphs and adults were located in the top layer of the soil during the rainy season and were found deeper in the soil during droughts. However, adults were less tolerant to hydric stress and burrowed deeper into the soil at the beginning of the dry season, while nymphs burrowed deeper only at the end of the season. Results of this study are in accordance to other studies on various species of Scaptocoris, in other regions of Brazil.

[Vertical distribution, damage and cultural control of Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) in avocado grove]. / Distribuição vertical, danos e controle cultural de Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) em pomar de abacate.

Stenoma catenifer Walsingham is the major pest in avocado groves (Persea americana Mill.) in the Neotropical region. Management has been difficult for many reasons related to the reduced knowledge on its bioecology and the avocado growing systems. The goal of this work was to study the vertical distribution of S. catenifer in avocado plants, the gagging effect of infested fruit on its survival, and the losses caused. The experiments were conducted in a commercial grove located at the São Tomás de Aquino, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, during the 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 growing season. S. catenifer was observed especially at the lower and central part of the plant, and the inner canopy was the least attacked in comparison with the north, south, east and west quadrants. These results may be important indicators for the use of am adequate sampling procedure. The highest percentage of attacked fruit had one to four larvae; in some cases up to eight individuals per fruit were found. The losses caused by the borer varied during the agricultural season, with figures close to 5% in a single evaluation, and the harvest loss may reach 27%. The bagging of infested fruit caused mortality of S. catenifer, as observed through the evaluation carried out four days later.

Distribuição vertical, danos e controle cultural de Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) em pomar de abacate / Vertical distribution, damage and cultural control of Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) in avocado grove

Stenoma catenifer Walsingham é a principal praga do abacateiro (Persea americana Mill.) na região Neotropical. O seu manejo tem sido dificultado por fatores relacionados à falta de conhecimento da sua bioecologia e aos sistemas de condução dos pomares. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a distribuição vertical de S. catenifer em abacateiros, os danos ocasionados devido ao seu ataque e o efeito do ensacamento de frutos infestados, na sua sobrevivência. Os experimentos foram conduzidos num pomar comercial, situado no município de São Tomás de Aquino, MG, durante as safras agrícolas 2001/2002 e 2002/2003. A distribuição vertical de ataque de S. catenifer foi observada especialmente na altura inferior e média da planta, sendo que o interior da copa foi o local menos atacado quando comparado com os quadrantes norte, sul, leste e oeste. Esses resultados podem dar importante subsídio para amostragem da praga. A maior porcentagem dos frutos atacados possuía de uma a quatro lagartas, havendo casos em que foram encontrados até oito indivíduos por fruto. As perdas ocasionadas pela broca variaram ao longo do tempo, atingindo valores próximos de 5 por cento numa única avaliação, sendo que, a perda na safra alcançou 27 por cento. O ensacamento dos frutos infestados ocasionou a mortalidade das lagartas de S. catenifer, na avaliação realizada quatro dias depois.

Stenoma catenifer Walsingham is the major pest in avocado groves (Persea americana Mill.) in the Neotropical region. Management has been difficult for many reasons related to the reduced knowledge on its bioecology and the avocado growing systems. The goal of this work was to study the vertical distribution of S. catenifer in avocado plants, the gagging effect of infested fruit on its survival, and the losses caused. The experiments were conducted in a commercial grove located at the São Tomás de Aquino, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, during the 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 growing season. S. catenifer was observed especially at the lower and central part of the plant, and the inner canopy was the least attacked in comparison with the north, south, east and west quadrants. These results may be important indicators for the use of am adequate sampling procedure. The highest percentage of attacked fruit had one to four larvae; in some cases up to eight individuals per fruit were found. The losses caused by the borer varied during the agricultural season, with figures close to 5 percent in a single evaluation, and the harvest loss may reach 27 percent. The bagging of infested fruit caused mortality of S. catenifer, as observed through the evaluation carried out four days later.

Plant volatiles: new perspectives for research in Brazil

Os agroecossistemas consistem em complexas relações tróficas entre plantas hospedeiras, herbívoros e seus inimigos naturais. Este trabalho revisa as pesquisas com voláteis de plantas no Brasil, apresenta os múltiplos mecanismos de resistência em culturas de importância econômica e contribui para o conhecimento das defesas induzidas em plantas. Uma grande parte dos programas de manejo de pragas, incluindo controle químico e biológico, não considera o impacto dessas substâncias sobre herbívoros e seus inimigos naturais. Estratégias alternativas de controle estão sendo desenvolvidas para o entendimento dos mecanismos endógenos de defesas induzidas em plantas contra artrópodes fitófagos. A utilização de voláteis de plantas no manejo integrado de pragas é uma estratégia adicional e ecologicamente sustentável no controle de pragas. Essa técnica envolve a possibilidade de utilização de iscas como atraentes de organismos benéficos, e a manipulação dos processos bioquímicos que induzem e regulam as defesas em plantas. A determinação dos mecanismos responsáves pela defesa indireta de plantas resultará em avanços significativos no controle biológico de pragas.

Towards the identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton ( Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae )

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi caracterizar o comportamento sexual do minador-dos-citros, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, como suporte para o isolamento, identificação e síntese do seu feromônio sexual. O acasalamento de P. citrella ocorre no intervalo entre 1h antes do início da fotofase e 1h após o término da escotofase, entre adultos de um e dois dias de idade. O comportamento de corte e cópula foi descrito para essa espécie, sendo a duração média da cópula de 49,6 min. Estudos conduzidos em olfatômetro tipo Y demonstraram que os machos foram fortemente atraídos pelas fêmeas virgens bem como pelo extrato natural de glândulas de feromônio sexual das fêmeas.

Plant volatiles: new perspectives for research in Brazil.

Agroecosystems consist on complex trophic relationships among host plants, herbivores and their natural enemies. This article reviews the research of plant volatiles in Brazil, in order to determine multiple resistance mechanisms of economically important crops and to contribute to the understanding of insect-plant interactions. Most pest management programs, including chemical and biological control, do not consider the impact of these chemicals on herbivores and their natural enemies. Alternative control methods are being developed in order to improve our understanding on the endogenous mechanisms of plant induced defenses against phytophagous arthropods. The use of plant volatiles technology as an additional tool in integrated pest management programs would offer a new and environmentally sound approach to crop protection. This technique involves the development of baits that attract beneficial organisms and the manipulation of biochemical processes that induce and regulate plant defenses, key factors in the improvement of control programs against economically important pests. The elucidation of the mechanisms involved in the indirect defenses of plants will result in useful tools for biological control of crop pests.

Towards the identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae).

The objective of this work was to characterize the sexual behavior of the citrus leafminer, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton, as the foundation for the isolation, identification, and synthesis of the complete sex pheromone of this species. Mating occurred in a time window of 2h, starting 1h before the onset of photophase. The large majority of tested insects mated in the first two days after emergence, with no significant difference between mating at day 1 and day 2. A stereotypical courtship and copulation behavior were described for this species. When mating was successful, the copulation was recorded in average for 49.6 min. In Y-olfactometer tests conducted at the time of mating activity, males were strongly attracted to caged virgin females as well as to extracts from putative pheromone glands.

Desenvolvimento de um modelo para previsão de ocorrência do bicho-furão-dos-citros, Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae / Development of a model to predict the occurrence of citrus fruit borer, Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo desenvolver um modelo para previsão de ocorrência do bicho-furão-dos-citros, Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima). Para tanto, 553 áreas localizadas em 17 fazendas do estado de São Paulo foram monitoradas por meio de armadilhas com feromônio sexual de E. aurantiana durante um ano. O tipo de solo, temperatura mensal média do local, variedade de citros, idade das plantas e uso de agroquímicos para o controle de E. aurantiana, foram utilizados como variáveis para cada área mencionada. A maior influência sobre a flutuação populacional do bicho-furão-dos-citros foi exercida pelo tipo de solo, seguido pela temperatura mensal média do local, variedade de citros, idade das plantas e uso de agroquímicos. A ocorrência de E. aurantiana em função da temperatura foi diferente para cada combinação de tipo de solo, variedade de citros, idade das plantas e uso de agroquímicos. O modelo desenvolvido pode prever o potencial de ocorrência de E. aurantiana em função da temperatura ou dos meses do ano, levando-se em consideração o tipo de solo, variedade de citros, idade das plantas e aplicação de agroquímicos. O programa (BF) elaborado na linguagem R conta com equações para simular as diversas situações de ocorrência de E. aurantiana. O modelo de previsão de ocorrência de bicho-furão pode ser aperfeiçoado com a coleta de dados mais regulares e de forma contínua.

The goal of this work was to develop a model to predict the occurrence of Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima), based on monitoring data collected through sexual pheromone traps. Soil type, site temperature, citrus variety, age of plants and use of chemicals to control E. aurantiana influenced the population dynamics of the insect. The highest influence was exerted by the soil type, followed by site temperature, citrus variety, age of plants and the use of chemicals for E. aurantiana control. The occurrence of E. aurantiana according to temperature is different for each combination of soil type, citrus variety, age of plants and use of chemicals. The model developed can predict the occurrence potential of E. aurantiana according to temperature or months of the year, taking into account soil type, citrus variety, age of plants and chemicals spraying. The elaborated software (BF), designed in R language, includes equations that simulate the various situations of E. aurantiana occurrence. The predicting model of citrus fruit borer occurrence can be improved with more frequent and continuous data collecting.

Horário de Oviposição e Ritmo Diário de Emergência de Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) em Laboratório / Oviposition Time and Daily Emergence Rhythm of Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) in Laboratory

The behavior of Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton was studied in relation to the time of oviposition and daily emergence rhythm in laboratory under controlled temperature, relative humidity and photoperiod conditions. A crepuscular and nocturnal egg-laying habit of P. citrella was recorded with approximately 95.4% eggs laid during the scotophase (10h). Out of the total eggs laid throughout 24h, about 45.4% was concentrated on the first two hours of scotophase. P. citrella adults had a synchronized emergence, with a male:female proportion of 1:1, with a consequent sexual ratio of 0.5.

Estudou-se o comportamento de Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton quanto ao horário de oviposição e ritmo diário de emergência, em laboratório sob condições controladas de temperatura, umidade relativa e fotoperíodo. Ficou caracterizado o hábito crepuscular e noturno de postura de P. citrella, com aproximadamente 95,4% dos ovos colocados durante a escotofase (10h). Do total de ovos nas 24h, cerca de 45,4% concentraram-se nas duas primeiras horas da escotofase. Adultos de P. citrella apresentaram um sincronismo na emergência, com uma proporção macho:fêmea de 1:1, e portanto, com uma razão sexual igual a 0,5.